Kütahya was known as "kotiaeion'' in ancient times. At different stages of its history it has been known as "Kotiaion” "Cotyaeium", and "Cotyaium". According to the ancient geographer Strabon, this name means "the city of Kotys". From the findings in Tavşanlı, Tunçbilek, Boyalık and Gevence we know that the first settlers in Kütahya date back to the Chalcolithic age. Findings in Altınbaş and Domaniç suggest that there were settlements during the Hittite era - in the First and Middle Bronze ages. The Phrygians, who came to the region along with other migrants from the Aegean, became organized as a state in 800 B.C. The region, which was invaded by Kimmerians in 676 B.C. joined with the Lydian lands, and was later conquered by Persians during the reign of Kyros the Second (559-529 BC). In 334 BC, the King of Macedonia, Alexander the Great by defeating the Persians gained control of the region. With his death in 323 BC, the control of Kütahya and its neighbouring areas changed hands between his generals. After a short time the region was settled by Galatians from Thrace and although the kingdoms of Bithynia and Pergamon were regionally dominant it was seeded to Rome in 133 BC. Remaining important as a bishopric during the reign of Constantine.
Kütahya took its place in a province called Anatolicon during the Byzantine period. In 1075 Kutalmışoglu Süleymanşah, who had founded the Anatolian Seljuk State, conquered Kütahya. Invaded by the Crusaders in 1097, the region re-joined Byzantine lands. However it was taken under the dominion of Seljuks during the Alaeddin Keykubad period in 1277 as part of the last Anatolian Seljuk State. Kütahya and the neighbouring areas were taken by Germiyanoğulları and after the death of the last Germiyan Sultan, Yakup 2 in 1429, they joined with the Ottomans. Being a Sanjak belonging to the province of Hüdavendigar from 1876, Kütahya became an independent Sanjak after the second Constitutional Monarchy. After the First World War, Kütahya was invaded by the Greeks on July 17, 1921, and liberated on August 30, 1922 as part of the "Great Advance" started on August 26, 1922, and was turned into a province in 1923
Kütahya has a special place in our history of national struggle against the Entente States. The most important part of the Turkish War of Independence was took place in our province.
At the end of the World War I, the Entente governments began to occupy Anatolia according to the articles of the Armistice of Mudros. Against the occupation, with the leadership of Ataturk, the Turkish National Defense Movement began on May 19th, 1919, continued 3 years and lasted in August 30th, 1922, with a great victory in Kütahya Dumlupınar.
Atatürk came to Kütahya-Çalköy on August 30th, 1924 for the groundbreaking ceremony of the Monument of Martyr Sancaktar Mehmetçik and highlighted that:
“Afyonkarahisar-Dumlupınar Square Wars and its last stage Great Advance was the most important milestone of Turkish history. This victory was a new step not only for Turkish history but also for World history. There is no doubt that the basis of the new and young Turkish Republic established here [Dumlupınar and Çalköy]. Our martyrs’ souls were the safeguards of our State and our Republic.”
source: kutahya(dot)gov(dot)tr
Sunday, May 2, 2010
History of Konya
Settled life in and around Konya starts from the prehistoric period. Within this period we can see the cultures of Neolithic Calcolithic and early Bronze Era.
Höyükler, which are the inhabitancy areas of this period, are within the borders of Konya. The findings belonging to the Neolithic Period (7000-5500 BC) came out through the archeological excavations in Çatalhöyük.
In Karahöyük, which is within one of the regions of Konya today, inhabitancy of the Hittite is seen. The archeological excavations that have been carried out for many years give us findings that reflect this period.
Frigs who gave an end to the sovereignty of Hittite on Anatolia are the sects who have emigrated from Thrace to Anatolia. (The findings that were got from Alaaddin Hill, Karapinar, Gicikisla and Sizma belong to the seventh century BC). After the Frigians (Phrygians) Konya (Kavania) was invaded by Lydians and Iskender. Later on when the sovereignty of Rome was set Konya kept its existence as Ikonium (25 B.C.).
St. Paul Antiochia, one of the Christian saints who went up from Antalya to Anatolia, then came to Ikonium (Konya). At this period Hatunsaray Lystra-Derbe, Leodica and Sille were important settlement areas of Byzantines. With the spread of Islam in Anatolia Arabian raids started. The Ommayads and Abbasids raided over Konya.
After the Malazgirt war in 1071, as well as a large part of Anatolia, Konya was taken from Byzantines by Seljuks.
The Sultan of Anatolian Seljuks, Suleyman Shah, declared Konya as the capital city in 1076. In 1080 the capital city was transferred to Iznik, Kilic Aslan I carried the capital city to Konya in 1097. Konya, from 1097 to 1277, was capital city of Anatolian Seljuks.
Having been conquered by Kamanid Mehmed Bey, Konya went under the sovereignty of Karamanids. By conquering Konya Murad II one of the Ottoman sultans, gave an end to the sovereignty of Karamanians on Konya in 1442.
Konya continued its reputation and esteem during the Ottoman period. One of the Ottoman Sultans, Yavuz Sultan Selim, stayed in Konya during his campaigns to Iran and Egypt. Kanuni Sultan Süleyman stayed in Konya during his campaign to Iran and Murad IV during his campaign to Baghdad.
During the Republic Period, Konya became the largest province of the country. In spite of the fact that the city of Karaman which includes the districts of Ayranci, Ermenek, and Kazımkarabekir was separated from Konya with a law put forth in 1989, the city kept this special feature.
Konya, which is a neighbor city of Ankara, Niğde, Aksaray, Icel, Antalya, Isparta, Afyon, Eskisehir and Karaman on the central Anatolia High plateau of 39,000 km2, occupies a place between 36o22’ and 39o08’ northern parallels and 31o14’ and 34o05’ Eastern meridians. Its traffic code is 42, Municipality of Konya founded in 1876 achieved the status of being “major city” according to the law numbered 3030 that was put forth in 1984. Since 1989 municipality services have been carried out according to this status.
According to the census done in 1990, the total population of Karatay district to which two sub districts and twenty nine villages are connected, is 169,000 and its central population is 142,678.
The total population of Meram district to which three sub districts and thirty five villages are connected, is 213,644 and its central population is 182,444.
The total population of Selçuk district which has two sub districts and twenty nine villages is 202,154 and its central population is 188,244. According to the census done in 1980 the total population of Konya is 1,750,303 and it is the fifth city after Istanbul, Ankara, İzmir and Adana.
Alaeddin Hill is a tumulus which hides relies of 400 years under it. Once upon a time, it attracted attention not as an area of settlement but as an area where the richness of history, culture and nature were protected and a place where people’s needs of having a rest were met. In the north of the hill Alaeddin Mosque has the pleasure of meeting its people after efforts of restoration that lasted for many years.
The mausoleum that has the sarcophagus of eight Seljuk Sultans, first and fore most Alaeddin Keykubat’s, is in the courtyard of the mosque. If you stand on the eastern part of the hill, next to the Monument of Martyrs you will see the Mevlana Dervish Convent with its green, eye-catching dome at the end of the dual carriage way lying in front of you. You can also see the minarets of Sultan Selim Mosque which was built by one of the Ottoman Sultans, Selim II, on the right side of Mevlana Dervish Convent which has been used as a museum since 1926.
The tram which is a cheap and clean vehicle of public transportation carried its 65,000 passengers with its railway wagon that made 300 trips from 06:00 till 24:00 on a route of 10,5 km. With the rise of wagons to 41, trips to 450, the length of the route to 18,5 km, the passenger capacity has increased to 120,000.
Konya, with its historical works, is a city that seems like an open-air museum.
source: selcuk(dot)edu(dot)tr
Höyükler, which are the inhabitancy areas of this period, are within the borders of Konya. The findings belonging to the Neolithic Period (7000-5500 BC) came out through the archeological excavations in Çatalhöyük.
In Karahöyük, which is within one of the regions of Konya today, inhabitancy of the Hittite is seen. The archeological excavations that have been carried out for many years give us findings that reflect this period.
Frigs who gave an end to the sovereignty of Hittite on Anatolia are the sects who have emigrated from Thrace to Anatolia. (The findings that were got from Alaaddin Hill, Karapinar, Gicikisla and Sizma belong to the seventh century BC). After the Frigians (Phrygians) Konya (Kavania) was invaded by Lydians and Iskender. Later on when the sovereignty of Rome was set Konya kept its existence as Ikonium (25 B.C.).
St. Paul Antiochia, one of the Christian saints who went up from Antalya to Anatolia, then came to Ikonium (Konya). At this period Hatunsaray Lystra-Derbe, Leodica and Sille were important settlement areas of Byzantines. With the spread of Islam in Anatolia Arabian raids started. The Ommayads and Abbasids raided over Konya.
After the Malazgirt war in 1071, as well as a large part of Anatolia, Konya was taken from Byzantines by Seljuks.
The Sultan of Anatolian Seljuks, Suleyman Shah, declared Konya as the capital city in 1076. In 1080 the capital city was transferred to Iznik, Kilic Aslan I carried the capital city to Konya in 1097. Konya, from 1097 to 1277, was capital city of Anatolian Seljuks.
Having been conquered by Kamanid Mehmed Bey, Konya went under the sovereignty of Karamanids. By conquering Konya Murad II one of the Ottoman sultans, gave an end to the sovereignty of Karamanians on Konya in 1442.
Konya continued its reputation and esteem during the Ottoman period. One of the Ottoman Sultans, Yavuz Sultan Selim, stayed in Konya during his campaigns to Iran and Egypt. Kanuni Sultan Süleyman stayed in Konya during his campaign to Iran and Murad IV during his campaign to Baghdad.
During the Republic Period, Konya became the largest province of the country. In spite of the fact that the city of Karaman which includes the districts of Ayranci, Ermenek, and Kazımkarabekir was separated from Konya with a law put forth in 1989, the city kept this special feature.
Konya, which is a neighbor city of Ankara, Niğde, Aksaray, Icel, Antalya, Isparta, Afyon, Eskisehir and Karaman on the central Anatolia High plateau of 39,000 km2, occupies a place between 36o22’ and 39o08’ northern parallels and 31o14’ and 34o05’ Eastern meridians. Its traffic code is 42, Municipality of Konya founded in 1876 achieved the status of being “major city” according to the law numbered 3030 that was put forth in 1984. Since 1989 municipality services have been carried out according to this status.
According to the census done in 1990, the total population of Karatay district to which two sub districts and twenty nine villages are connected, is 169,000 and its central population is 142,678.
The total population of Meram district to which three sub districts and thirty five villages are connected, is 213,644 and its central population is 182,444.
The total population of Selçuk district which has two sub districts and twenty nine villages is 202,154 and its central population is 188,244. According to the census done in 1980 the total population of Konya is 1,750,303 and it is the fifth city after Istanbul, Ankara, İzmir and Adana.
Alaeddin Hill is a tumulus which hides relies of 400 years under it. Once upon a time, it attracted attention not as an area of settlement but as an area where the richness of history, culture and nature were protected and a place where people’s needs of having a rest were met. In the north of the hill Alaeddin Mosque has the pleasure of meeting its people after efforts of restoration that lasted for many years.
The mausoleum that has the sarcophagus of eight Seljuk Sultans, first and fore most Alaeddin Keykubat’s, is in the courtyard of the mosque. If you stand on the eastern part of the hill, next to the Monument of Martyrs you will see the Mevlana Dervish Convent with its green, eye-catching dome at the end of the dual carriage way lying in front of you. You can also see the minarets of Sultan Selim Mosque which was built by one of the Ottoman Sultans, Selim II, on the right side of Mevlana Dervish Convent which has been used as a museum since 1926.
The tram which is a cheap and clean vehicle of public transportation carried its 65,000 passengers with its railway wagon that made 300 trips from 06:00 till 24:00 on a route of 10,5 km. With the rise of wagons to 41, trips to 450, the length of the route to 18,5 km, the passenger capacity has increased to 120,000.
Konya, with its historical works, is a city that seems like an open-air museum.
source: selcuk(dot)edu(dot)tr
History of Kocaeli
Being on the way on one of the most important crossroads of the world combining Asia to Europe, Kocaeli and its surroundings has been an important populated place starting from the pre-historic ages. It has been confirmed that population has been existing in this area since 3000 B.C. Despite of that only a few populated places have been discovered dating back to pre-historic ages.
The major reasons of the discovery of only a few inhabited areas in such a convenient area for settlement are the lack of archelogical studies and the destruction of the signs of history by the inhabiters.
Kocaeli and its surroundings that have been inhabited up to date and the limited amount of invesitgations have revealed the earliest human signs at the east of Kefken Kovanagzi and Sarisu on the west and on the Pink Rocks and Cebeci shoulders. Remains discovered at Kovanagzi and Cebeci belong to the subpaleolitic age, remains from Sarisu belong to mid-Paleolitic Age.
Additional again at the kefken headland firing stones have been found spred widely. The first ruins of a populated place dating back to the analictic age is at Validekopru tumulus found at yalakdere village of Karamursel. Other signs possibly belonging to a populated place are found at the Cene mountain at the county of Derince. However no detailed investigations have been held at both places. Except these two no other inhabited until the 1800's BC place has been discovered
First evidences belonging to Kocaeli date back to the 12th Century BC. At these times the Frigs have dominated the area, afterwards a group from the city of megara of greece seeking a new place for themselves have built the city of Astacos at todays area called Basiskele. After the demoliton of Astacos caused by the king of Tracia Lysimakhos on the side reefs of todays Kocaeli a new city called Nicomedia has been built.
At 262 B.C Alexander the Great who has had the city built, his king Nicomedes who was charged with the conquest of Anatolia had named the city with his wifes name. The constantly rising Bythinian Kingdom center Nicomedia, became a big Helenistic city. 91-94 BC it was donated to the Romans. 284 BC emperor Diocletionus has again turned Nicomedia into the capital city. By his time Nicomedia has become the fourth biggest city after Rome, Antakya, Alexandria. At the last quarter of the 11th century Nicomedia has been conquered by the Selchuksr. Then it has been taken back with the 1st crusade and stayed under siege of the Latins, then was recaptured by the Selchuks.
The city has come under control of the Ottomans at Orhan Gazi period with its conquest by Adapazari and Hendek regions governor Akcakoca. At early stages its name Iznikmid which means neighbour of Iznik has changed to Kocaeli in time. Being tied to Istanbul until 1888 Kocaeli became a seperate city after this date. Remaining under siege of British and Greek forces during the independence war period the city was liberated at 28th of June 1921, after the announcement of the republic became the center of the Kocaeli province. During the republican times industrial investments to the area have shaped the infastructure of the area and governmental and private investments have multiplied.
Today a developed Industrial city; surrounded by roads and railroads. Beside of that with the Derince and kocaeli ports it has established contact with world maritime lines. Covering somewhat a small surface area, with its production in industrial and value addtition it is an interesting example not only for Turkey but also for the world. Its natural beauties, beaches, plateaus, ski center and historical structures as well as the shores on the black Sea and the Marmara Sea the province of Kocaeli has an important role in commerce and tourism.
source: kocaeliab.gov.tr
The major reasons of the discovery of only a few inhabited areas in such a convenient area for settlement are the lack of archelogical studies and the destruction of the signs of history by the inhabiters.
Kocaeli and its surroundings that have been inhabited up to date and the limited amount of invesitgations have revealed the earliest human signs at the east of Kefken Kovanagzi and Sarisu on the west and on the Pink Rocks and Cebeci shoulders. Remains discovered at Kovanagzi and Cebeci belong to the subpaleolitic age, remains from Sarisu belong to mid-Paleolitic Age.
Additional again at the kefken headland firing stones have been found spred widely. The first ruins of a populated place dating back to the analictic age is at Validekopru tumulus found at yalakdere village of Karamursel. Other signs possibly belonging to a populated place are found at the Cene mountain at the county of Derince. However no detailed investigations have been held at both places. Except these two no other inhabited until the 1800's BC place has been discovered
First evidences belonging to Kocaeli date back to the 12th Century BC. At these times the Frigs have dominated the area, afterwards a group from the city of megara of greece seeking a new place for themselves have built the city of Astacos at todays area called Basiskele. After the demoliton of Astacos caused by the king of Tracia Lysimakhos on the side reefs of todays Kocaeli a new city called Nicomedia has been built.
At 262 B.C Alexander the Great who has had the city built, his king Nicomedes who was charged with the conquest of Anatolia had named the city with his wifes name. The constantly rising Bythinian Kingdom center Nicomedia, became a big Helenistic city. 91-94 BC it was donated to the Romans. 284 BC emperor Diocletionus has again turned Nicomedia into the capital city. By his time Nicomedia has become the fourth biggest city after Rome, Antakya, Alexandria. At the last quarter of the 11th century Nicomedia has been conquered by the Selchuksr. Then it has been taken back with the 1st crusade and stayed under siege of the Latins, then was recaptured by the Selchuks.
The city has come under control of the Ottomans at Orhan Gazi period with its conquest by Adapazari and Hendek regions governor Akcakoca. At early stages its name Iznikmid which means neighbour of Iznik has changed to Kocaeli in time. Being tied to Istanbul until 1888 Kocaeli became a seperate city after this date. Remaining under siege of British and Greek forces during the independence war period the city was liberated at 28th of June 1921, after the announcement of the republic became the center of the Kocaeli province. During the republican times industrial investments to the area have shaped the infastructure of the area and governmental and private investments have multiplied.
Today a developed Industrial city; surrounded by roads and railroads. Beside of that with the Derince and kocaeli ports it has established contact with world maritime lines. Covering somewhat a small surface area, with its production in industrial and value addtition it is an interesting example not only for Turkey but also for the world. Its natural beauties, beaches, plateaus, ski center and historical structures as well as the shores on the black Sea and the Marmara Sea the province of Kocaeli has an important role in commerce and tourism.
source: kocaeliab.gov.tr
History of Kırşehir
The history of Kırşehir dates back to the Hittites. The Romans called the city Macissus, and after the city was rebuilt by the Byzantine Emperor Justinian (527-565), it was renamed Justinianopolis. This name was retained until the end of Byzantine rule. The Turks took the city in 1071 and bestowed the current name. In Turkish, “Kır Şehri” means “Steppe City”. It became the chief town of a sanjak in the Ottoman vilayet of Angora, which possessed 8000 inhabitants, most of them Muslims.
In the 19th century, Kırşehir was attached to the sanjak of Ankara. In the year 1921, Kırşehir was made capital of its own province. Kemal Atatürk visited the city in 1921 and 1931. Kırşehir was once known as “Parnassos” or “Mikissos”. During the period of the Hittites, the basin of Kırşehir was known as the country of “Ahiyuva”. This basin also took the name Cappadocia at the time of the Romans and Byzantines.
It became a province in 1924. On 30 May 1954, it was accepted as a district of Nevşehir. Later, the towns of Kırşehir were divided between Ankara, Yozgat and Nevşehir. In 1957, Kırşehir became a province again.
source: gencnefes.com
In the 19th century, Kırşehir was attached to the sanjak of Ankara. In the year 1921, Kırşehir was made capital of its own province. Kemal Atatürk visited the city in 1921 and 1931. Kırşehir was once known as “Parnassos” or “Mikissos”. During the period of the Hittites, the basin of Kırşehir was known as the country of “Ahiyuva”. This basin also took the name Cappadocia at the time of the Romans and Byzantines.
It became a province in 1924. On 30 May 1954, it was accepted as a district of Nevşehir. Later, the towns of Kırşehir were divided between Ankara, Yozgat and Nevşehir. In 1957, Kırşehir became a province again.
source: gencnefes.com
Saturday, May 1, 2010
History of Kırklareli
In 1878, Kırk Kilise was home to 6500 Bulgarians, 2000 Greeks and 2500 Turks. The city was damaged during the Greek War of Independence. During the Balkan Wars, Kırk Kilise was occupied by Bulgaria, and then by Greece in the aftermath of World War I.
According to the official Ottoman census of 1906/7 (published in "Ottoman Population 1830-1914, Demographic and Social Characteristics" by Kemal H. Karpat), the ethnic-religious breakdown of Kirk Kilise in 1914 was:
Muslims 22,022 Greeks 14,154 Bulgarians 1,599 Jews 789.
The city was retaken by the Turks on November 10, 1922. According to the 1923 population exchange between Greece and Turkey, non-Turks here were exchanged for Turks in Greece. Most of the inhabitants of the city are Turks who formerly lived in Thessaloniki until the First Balkan War of 1912.
[edit] The Megleno-Romanians of Kirklarely
In 1923 most of the 3700 inhabitants of Notia, the only moslem village of the Megleno-Romanians in northern Greece, settled in the Edirne area -mainly in Kırklareli- and became known as Karadjovalides[1] after the Turkish name of Moglen.
The number of these megleno-vlachs families settled in Kirklareţi were more than 110, while those settled in small villages around were 400: in total nearly 2000 megleno-romanians. Actually they number only 500, concentrated in Kirklareli and culturally assimilated to the Turks (most of them speak mainly the turkish language, but are still bilingual at home).
source: wikipedia.org
According to the official Ottoman census of 1906/7 (published in "Ottoman Population 1830-1914, Demographic and Social Characteristics" by Kemal H. Karpat), the ethnic-religious breakdown of Kirk Kilise in 1914 was:
Muslims 22,022 Greeks 14,154 Bulgarians 1,599 Jews 789.
The city was retaken by the Turks on November 10, 1922. According to the 1923 population exchange between Greece and Turkey, non-Turks here were exchanged for Turks in Greece. Most of the inhabitants of the city are Turks who formerly lived in Thessaloniki until the First Balkan War of 1912.
[edit] The Megleno-Romanians of Kirklarely
In 1923 most of the 3700 inhabitants of Notia, the only moslem village of the Megleno-Romanians in northern Greece, settled in the Edirne area -mainly in Kırklareli- and became known as Karadjovalides[1] after the Turkish name of Moglen.
The number of these megleno-vlachs families settled in Kirklareţi were more than 110, while those settled in small villages around were 400: in total nearly 2000 megleno-romanians. Actually they number only 500, concentrated in Kirklareli and culturally assimilated to the Turks (most of them speak mainly the turkish language, but are still bilingual at home).
source: wikipedia.org
History of Kars
For a short time (928-961) Kars was the capital of the Armenian Bagratid kingdom and it was during this time that the Cathedral, now known as the Church of the Apostles, was built. Shortly after the Bagratid capital was transferred to Ani, Kars became (in 963) a separate independent kingdom known as Vannad - the Armenian name for the Kars region. This kingdom was to outlive that of Ani.
After the Seljuk Turks captured Ani, the last Armenian king of Kars ceded his city to the Byzantine empire in 1064, getting in return the city of Amasya and lands in northern Cilicia. The Byzantines were no more successful in defending Kars than they were with Ani, and soon lost it to the Turks (in 1071). The Turkish population of Kars would have been small - but support from the Emirs of Erzurum maintained their power until 1206, when the Georgians expelled the Turkish rulers. In 1236 the Mongols occupied the region. As with other places, they probably gave a great deal of autonomy to the majority Armenian population: an Armenian prince is known to have been governing Kars in 1284.
After the collapse of the Mongol empire a series of petty Turkish emirs governed Kars until its incorporation into the Ottoman Turkish empire in 1534. In 1579 the Ottomans undertook an extensive rebuilding of the city and its fortifications to guard against Persian attacks. From the mid 18th to the early 19th century control from Constantinople had diminished to the extent that the pashas of Kars were semi-autonomous.
The gradual Russian conquest of the Caucasus, starting in the 18th century, led to an influx of Muslim migrants, especially Circassians. Kars became a strategic and heavily fortified border town protecting the Turkish empire's eastern frontier and the road to Erzurum. The Armenian population by then was probably quite small and seems to have been lived mainly in a district to the west of the old castle, just outside the city walls - there are still two ruined Armenian churches here, as well as an old medieval Armenian graveyard. The Russians occupied Kars in 1828, in 1855 (after celebrated siege lasting seven months) and again in 1877. This time the Russians kept the city.
A substantial part of the Muslim population left after 1877, choosing not to live under Russian rule. The Russians did not behave particularly favourably towards their remaining Turkish subjects; some mosques were demolished, others turned into stables, although their policy was mainly one of deliberate neglect. Those Muslims still in Kars seem to have moved to the districts formerly lived in by the Armenians. The Armenians gradually moved into an entirely new district of European-style buildings built on a grid plan to the south of the old medieval city, and most of the old city walls were demolished. There was a large influx of Armenians from other parts of Russian controlled Armenia, as well as Armenians fleeing the oppression and massacres of the Ottoman empire: Kars became a rapidly growing boom town.
In 1894 the British traveller Lynch wrote that the population of Kars was around 4000 (excluding the large military garrison), made up of 2500 Armenians, 850 Turks, 300 Greeks and 250 Russians. In 1913 the town had 10200 Armenian and 900 Turkish inhabitants.
By the end of the 19th century the Kars plain had become the home to various sects, mostly Protestant Christian, that were unwelcome in Russia proper. A few surviving adherents of one group called the Molokans are still supposed to be living in and around Kars. Some of the descendants of German and Estonian settlers still live in the Kars region, and there were also many Greek settlers, now all gone. The policy of allowing non-Armenians to settle here was a deliberate Russian one to limit the growth and wealth of the Armenian population. Lynch mentions that around Yerevan uncultivated lands were for the most part in the hands of the Russian government who were not inclined to sell or lease them to Armenians because they were keeping them for Russians.
The recapture of Kars was a key military objective for Turkey during the early months of the First World War, but their invading army was heavily defeated at the battle of Sarikamish. This defeat was due more to the winter weather and bad planning, than to the Russians (who were actually preparing to evacuate Kars).
After many more battles, Russian forces succeeded in advancing as far west as Erzincan, but the collapse of the Russian army after the 1917 revolution left only thinly spread Armenian units to resist the inevitable Turkish counter-attack. By 1918 the Turkish army was cutting a swathe of destruction across the newly declared Republic of Armenia, capturing Kars in April 1918 and reaching Baku on the Caspian sea.
Defeat on other fronts caused Turkey to surrender and withdraw to the pre-war borders. In 1920 Turkey renewed its offensive, Kars again fell to the Turks (in October 1920), so did Alexandropol. The invasion was led by General Kazim Karabekir. Significantly it is a statue of Karabekir, not Ataturk, that stands outside the Kars train station.
In November 1920 the Bolsheviks annexed the little that was left of the Armenian republic. With Armenia now under Soviet "protection" the Turks ceased their advance and even withdrew from some captured territory, including Alexandropol. The Bolsheviks wanted good relations with Turkey, and in 1921 they signed the "Treaty of Kars" ceding the towns of Kars, Sarikamish, Igdir, Kagizman, Ardahan, Artvin and Oltu to Turkey. The railway carriage in which this treaty was signed is still preserved in the Kars museum.
In 1920 much of the town's Armenian population had fled in panic before the advancing Turks. Of those that stayed, hundreds were imprisoned - and then either executed or sent to Erzurum to work as slave labour building roads. Those Armenians still free had little incentive to remain. Oliver Baldwin, held prisoner in Kars shortly after its capture, later wrote:
"If a Turk desires any particular Armenian woman, all he has to do was arrest the husband as a spy. If the husband caused too much trouble he was shot at once, and the excuse was always the same: 'In 1915, when the Armenians took Erzeroum, this man killed my cousin'. Since the poor man was dead it would have been impossible for him to prove that in 1915 he was in America, so the murderer was dismissed and the crime written down as 'justifiable revenge'.
One Armenian who refused to surrender a ring was murdered for it, and the same Turkish excuse was used with the same result.
These incidents were of daily occurrence during my time at Kars, but it was all part of the Turkish policy of seeing that no Armenians remain in Armenia, and the consequent justification of its possession by Turkey".
The Kars Treaty enabled the deportation of the remaining Armenians. A traveller named Reitlinger visited Kars in 1931 and found most of the city deserted and in ruins, with a civilian population numbering only a few hundred. By the late 1960s the population had increased to 25,000. Today the Turkish census says that there are 78,000 inhabitants in Kars, which is now the capital of Kars province.
source: virtualani.org
After the Seljuk Turks captured Ani, the last Armenian king of Kars ceded his city to the Byzantine empire in 1064, getting in return the city of Amasya and lands in northern Cilicia. The Byzantines were no more successful in defending Kars than they were with Ani, and soon lost it to the Turks (in 1071). The Turkish population of Kars would have been small - but support from the Emirs of Erzurum maintained their power until 1206, when the Georgians expelled the Turkish rulers. In 1236 the Mongols occupied the region. As with other places, they probably gave a great deal of autonomy to the majority Armenian population: an Armenian prince is known to have been governing Kars in 1284.
After the collapse of the Mongol empire a series of petty Turkish emirs governed Kars until its incorporation into the Ottoman Turkish empire in 1534. In 1579 the Ottomans undertook an extensive rebuilding of the city and its fortifications to guard against Persian attacks. From the mid 18th to the early 19th century control from Constantinople had diminished to the extent that the pashas of Kars were semi-autonomous.
The gradual Russian conquest of the Caucasus, starting in the 18th century, led to an influx of Muslim migrants, especially Circassians. Kars became a strategic and heavily fortified border town protecting the Turkish empire's eastern frontier and the road to Erzurum. The Armenian population by then was probably quite small and seems to have been lived mainly in a district to the west of the old castle, just outside the city walls - there are still two ruined Armenian churches here, as well as an old medieval Armenian graveyard. The Russians occupied Kars in 1828, in 1855 (after celebrated siege lasting seven months) and again in 1877. This time the Russians kept the city.
A substantial part of the Muslim population left after 1877, choosing not to live under Russian rule. The Russians did not behave particularly favourably towards their remaining Turkish subjects; some mosques were demolished, others turned into stables, although their policy was mainly one of deliberate neglect. Those Muslims still in Kars seem to have moved to the districts formerly lived in by the Armenians. The Armenians gradually moved into an entirely new district of European-style buildings built on a grid plan to the south of the old medieval city, and most of the old city walls were demolished. There was a large influx of Armenians from other parts of Russian controlled Armenia, as well as Armenians fleeing the oppression and massacres of the Ottoman empire: Kars became a rapidly growing boom town.
In 1894 the British traveller Lynch wrote that the population of Kars was around 4000 (excluding the large military garrison), made up of 2500 Armenians, 850 Turks, 300 Greeks and 250 Russians. In 1913 the town had 10200 Armenian and 900 Turkish inhabitants.
By the end of the 19th century the Kars plain had become the home to various sects, mostly Protestant Christian, that were unwelcome in Russia proper. A few surviving adherents of one group called the Molokans are still supposed to be living in and around Kars. Some of the descendants of German and Estonian settlers still live in the Kars region, and there were also many Greek settlers, now all gone. The policy of allowing non-Armenians to settle here was a deliberate Russian one to limit the growth and wealth of the Armenian population. Lynch mentions that around Yerevan uncultivated lands were for the most part in the hands of the Russian government who were not inclined to sell or lease them to Armenians because they were keeping them for Russians.
The recapture of Kars was a key military objective for Turkey during the early months of the First World War, but their invading army was heavily defeated at the battle of Sarikamish. This defeat was due more to the winter weather and bad planning, than to the Russians (who were actually preparing to evacuate Kars).
After many more battles, Russian forces succeeded in advancing as far west as Erzincan, but the collapse of the Russian army after the 1917 revolution left only thinly spread Armenian units to resist the inevitable Turkish counter-attack. By 1918 the Turkish army was cutting a swathe of destruction across the newly declared Republic of Armenia, capturing Kars in April 1918 and reaching Baku on the Caspian sea.
Defeat on other fronts caused Turkey to surrender and withdraw to the pre-war borders. In 1920 Turkey renewed its offensive, Kars again fell to the Turks (in October 1920), so did Alexandropol. The invasion was led by General Kazim Karabekir. Significantly it is a statue of Karabekir, not Ataturk, that stands outside the Kars train station.
In November 1920 the Bolsheviks annexed the little that was left of the Armenian republic. With Armenia now under Soviet "protection" the Turks ceased their advance and even withdrew from some captured territory, including Alexandropol. The Bolsheviks wanted good relations with Turkey, and in 1921 they signed the "Treaty of Kars" ceding the towns of Kars, Sarikamish, Igdir, Kagizman, Ardahan, Artvin and Oltu to Turkey. The railway carriage in which this treaty was signed is still preserved in the Kars museum.
In 1920 much of the town's Armenian population had fled in panic before the advancing Turks. Of those that stayed, hundreds were imprisoned - and then either executed or sent to Erzurum to work as slave labour building roads. Those Armenians still free had little incentive to remain. Oliver Baldwin, held prisoner in Kars shortly after its capture, later wrote:
"If a Turk desires any particular Armenian woman, all he has to do was arrest the husband as a spy. If the husband caused too much trouble he was shot at once, and the excuse was always the same: 'In 1915, when the Armenians took Erzeroum, this man killed my cousin'. Since the poor man was dead it would have been impossible for him to prove that in 1915 he was in America, so the murderer was dismissed and the crime written down as 'justifiable revenge'.
One Armenian who refused to surrender a ring was murdered for it, and the same Turkish excuse was used with the same result.
These incidents were of daily occurrence during my time at Kars, but it was all part of the Turkish policy of seeing that no Armenians remain in Armenia, and the consequent justification of its possession by Turkey".
The Kars Treaty enabled the deportation of the remaining Armenians. A traveller named Reitlinger visited Kars in 1931 and found most of the city deserted and in ruins, with a civilian population numbering only a few hundred. By the late 1960s the population had increased to 25,000. Today the Turkish census says that there are 78,000 inhabitants in Kars, which is now the capital of Kars province.
source: virtualani.org
History of Mersin
This coast has been inhabited since the 9th millennium BC. Excavations by John Garstang of the hill of Yumuktepe have revealed 23 levels of occupation, the earliest dating from ca. 6300 BC. A fortification was put up around 4500 BC, but the site appears to have been abandoned between 3200 BC and 1200 BC.
In the following centuries the city became a part of many states and civilizations including the Hittites, Assyrians, Persians, Greeks, the Macedonians of Alexander the Great, Seleucids, Lagids. During the Ancient Greek period, the city bore the name Zephyrion (Greek: Ζεφύριον[2]) and was mentioned by numerous ancient authors. Apart from its natural harbor and its strategic position along the trade routes of southern Anatolia, the city profited from trade in molybdenum (white lead) from the neighbouring mines of Coreyra. Ancient sources attributed the best molybdenum to the city, which also minted its own coins.
Later, the area became a part of the Roman province of Cilicia, which had its capital at Tarsus, while nearby Mersin was the major port. The city, whose name was Latinized to Zephyrium, was renamed as Hadrianopolis in honor of the Roman emperor Hadrian.
In 395 the Roman Empire was split in two and this area fell into the half ruled by Byzantium (later Constantinople), which became the centre of trade in this part of the world, drawing investments and trade, and causing Mersin to lose its attractiveness.
The city was Christianized early; and was the see of a bishop. Le Quien (Oriens christianus, II, 883) names four bishops of Zephyrium: Aerius, present at the Council of Constantinople in 381; Zenobius, a Nestorian, at the Second Council of Constantinople in 432-434; Hypatius, present at the Council of Chalcedon in 451; and Peter, at the Council in Trullo in 692. The city remains a titular see of the Roman Catholic Church, Zephyriensis; the see has been vacant since 1966.[3]
Then came the Arabs, Egyptian Tulunids, Seljuk Turks, Mongols, Crusaders, Armenians, Mamluks, Anatolian beyliks, and finally the city was conquered by the Ottomans from the Principality of Ramazanoğlu in 1473 and formally annexed by Selim I in 1517.
During the American Civil War, the region became a major supplier of cotton to make up for the high demand due to shortage. Railroads were extended to Mersin in 1866 from where cotton was exported by sea, and the city developed into a major trade center.
In 1918 Mersin was occupied by French and British troops in accord with the Treaty of Sevrès. It was liberated by the Turkish army in 1920. In 1924, Mersin was made a province, and in 1933, Mersin and İçel provinces were joined to form the (greater Mersin) İçel province.
Up until the 1970s Mersin had a population of 580,000 and a classy feel to it, with carriages parading under palm trees. The seafront was all orchards of oranges and lemons, perfect for a quiet stroll, and you could play on the beach. The heart of this tree-lined bourgois establishment were the patisseries along Flamingo road, a name that evokes nostalgia among those who lived here through the 60s and 70s
source: wikipedia.org
In the following centuries the city became a part of many states and civilizations including the Hittites, Assyrians, Persians, Greeks, the Macedonians of Alexander the Great, Seleucids, Lagids. During the Ancient Greek period, the city bore the name Zephyrion (Greek: Ζεφύριον[2]) and was mentioned by numerous ancient authors. Apart from its natural harbor and its strategic position along the trade routes of southern Anatolia, the city profited from trade in molybdenum (white lead) from the neighbouring mines of Coreyra. Ancient sources attributed the best molybdenum to the city, which also minted its own coins.
Later, the area became a part of the Roman province of Cilicia, which had its capital at Tarsus, while nearby Mersin was the major port. The city, whose name was Latinized to Zephyrium, was renamed as Hadrianopolis in honor of the Roman emperor Hadrian.
In 395 the Roman Empire was split in two and this area fell into the half ruled by Byzantium (later Constantinople), which became the centre of trade in this part of the world, drawing investments and trade, and causing Mersin to lose its attractiveness.
The city was Christianized early; and was the see of a bishop. Le Quien (Oriens christianus, II, 883) names four bishops of Zephyrium: Aerius, present at the Council of Constantinople in 381; Zenobius, a Nestorian, at the Second Council of Constantinople in 432-434; Hypatius, present at the Council of Chalcedon in 451; and Peter, at the Council in Trullo in 692. The city remains a titular see of the Roman Catholic Church, Zephyriensis; the see has been vacant since 1966.[3]
Then came the Arabs, Egyptian Tulunids, Seljuk Turks, Mongols, Crusaders, Armenians, Mamluks, Anatolian beyliks, and finally the city was conquered by the Ottomans from the Principality of Ramazanoğlu in 1473 and formally annexed by Selim I in 1517.
During the American Civil War, the region became a major supplier of cotton to make up for the high demand due to shortage. Railroads were extended to Mersin in 1866 from where cotton was exported by sea, and the city developed into a major trade center.
In 1918 Mersin was occupied by French and British troops in accord with the Treaty of Sevrès. It was liberated by the Turkish army in 1920. In 1924, Mersin was made a province, and in 1933, Mersin and İçel provinces were joined to form the (greater Mersin) İçel province.
Up until the 1970s Mersin had a population of 580,000 and a classy feel to it, with carriages parading under palm trees. The seafront was all orchards of oranges and lemons, perfect for a quiet stroll, and you could play on the beach. The heart of this tree-lined bourgois establishment were the patisseries along Flamingo road, a name that evokes nostalgia among those who lived here through the 60s and 70s
source: wikipedia.org
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